Language:

The Galos speak a classical language of their own, called ‘goŋkù.’ Considered central to any genuinely detailed knowledge of traditional Galo history, folklore, and spirituality, goŋkù is not only employed in the ritual practice of a Galo ɲibò ‘shaman,’ but presents a rich and culturally significant “parallel lexicon” to the ordinary Galo speaker which may be employed to significant effect in orations, village councils, and storytelling by those who take the time (and have the opportunity) to learn it well. Interestingly, there are several dialects of the Galo language, and it does not have any kind of standardisation to rely upon. The two dialects which can be easily traced and interpreted are the ‘puugoo’ and the ‘laree’ dialects. The ‘puugoo’ dialect is often called the ‘prestige’ tone due to its natural association with local government and economic prosperity, and seems overall to be the preferred dialect for Galo popular song recordings, most non-puugóo speakers show few if any signs of feeling pressured to conform to ‘puugóo’ norms outside of these limited contexts. Furthermore, the aggregate population of ‘puugóo’ dialect speakers appears to be considerably smaller than that of ‘larèe’ and its subdialects, and the geographical area within which ‘larèe’ is spoken is undoubtedly far more prominent than that in which ‘puugóo’ is spoken.

Habitat and Distribution:

The Galo community thrives predominantly in the lower half of West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. This vibrant group, with its myriad clans and rich cultural tapestry, is also found scattered in lower East Siang District and Upper Subansiri District, where they speak mostly, but not entirely, mutually intelligible dialects. The heartbeat of the Galo lands beats strongest in Aalóo (Along), the bustling capital of West Siang District and the unofficial centre of the Puugóo dialect. Further, Baahár (Basar), the second-largest town, is the cultural hub for the Larèe dialect speakers. Meanwhile, Lɨɨkàa-Balíi (Likabali) emerges as a rapidly expanding town on the Assam border, becoming the de facto capital for the Taíi (Podia) dialect. However, many of its residents also speak a variety of Larèe. Liromoba and Gensi, though smaller, are significant villages identified with unique dialects provisionally named Karkóo and Gensi. Each town and village, with its distinct dialect and vibrant community life, adds a rich layer to the Galo's cultural mosaic.

Social Structure and Family Life:

The Galo society is uniquely structured based on clan organisation, with biological relationships known as ‘Ali Rumtum’, or relations by common blood. Each clan and sub-clan trace their descent from one common ancestor, such as Ete, Pakam, Doji, Bagra, Angu, Kamsi, Lollen, Loyi, Amo, Lomi, etc., who are all sub-clans of the Paktu ‘semi-ancestors’ descended from Abo-Tani. The clan and subclan of the Galos are generally exogamous, and earlier, they were strictly observed. Also, clans are maintaining exogamy even today. The consequences of breaking this rule, such as strict punishment and even ex-communication, highlight the seriousness with which the Galo tribe upholds its cultural norms.

The Galos society is patriarchal, with the father serving as the head of the house and making all the significant decisions with the proper consent of his wife. They live in joint families and maintain pleasant social relations with their family, village, and distant relatives. The presence of polygamy is found in the society. Among the Galos, almost all the systems of marriage, such as monogamy, polygamy, exogamy, and polygamy, existed in Galos society. Earlier, exogamous marriage was discouraged. Till today, endogamous marriages are not tolerated and are considered incestuous. There is no strict age limit for marriage. And the season for marriage is always taken into consideration.

In the enchanting society of the Galos, marriage is more than just a union of two souls; it is a symphony of traditions and rituals, each step a testament to the rich cultural tapestry of their community. The journey towards marriage begins with Layap, a ceremony conducted by the groom’s parents. This joyful event formally accepts the girl as a daughter-in-law and sets the foundation for the ensuing marital rites. The proposal process, deeply rooted in tradition, involves a divination practice known as ‘Roksin-Koknam,’ which historically involved examining chicken liver or egg yolk to determine compatibility. Once a favourable girl was identified, middlemen were dispatched to negotiate the proposal with the girl’s parents, carrying a basket of ‘Opo’ (rice beer/alcohol), dried meat, fish, and a Jera (valuable cloth) for the girl’s mother. Acceptance of these items by the girl's family indicated consent to the proposal.

Hobe-Panam is the grand culmination of the marriage process and involves the Mithun sacrifice. While not compulsory, this ceremony is performed if both families agree, signifying a higher commitment and celebration. Preparation for Hobe-Panam can take almost a year, during which several vital rituals and activities are conducted. One essential pre-wedding ritual is Hijan-Panam, where selected trees are cleared, and a chosen tree is anointed with Itee (rice paste), Takee (ginger), and Poka (rice beer). This act is believed to bless the marriage with prosperity and harmony. The centrepiece of Hobe-Panam is the Mithun (a semi-wild creature midway between the buffalo and the Indian gaur, found all over the state) sacrifice. The Mithun, a highly valued bovine, is sacrificed to seek blessings from the deities and ancestors, ensuring a prosperous and harmonious married life for the couple.

The marriage process in the Galo society is a community affair, with relatives and community members participating in the preparations and ceremonies, fostering a sense of unity and collective blessing. Each ritual, from the divination process to the Mithun sacrifice, is imbued with symbolic meaning to ensure the couple's well-being, fertility, and prosperity.

The bride's specific price is to be given from the groom’s side to the bride’s parents, and in return, the bride’s parents must also offer something like a brass plate, pieces of bread, and so on. ‘Mithun’ is used as bride price because, according to the Galos belief, it is equally cost to human life.

Religion:

The Galos, like many Tani people, have long embraced the intricate and deeply rooted shamanistic faith known as Donyi Polo, which means 'sun and moon' in their language (Galo dooɲí-poolò). This ancient belief system weaves through the fabric of everyday life, guiding everything from the construction of homes and cultivation practices to the ceremonies of marriage, birth, and death. It provides a lens through which the Tani people understand the cosmos and their tribal history, permeating even the smallest details of daily existence with meaningful taboos and traditions.

Central to Donyi Polo rituals are the costly sacrifices of animals, offerings of rice beer, and other tributes to various spirits, all conducted through the ɲibò, a revered shaman or priest who acts as a bridge between the earthly and the spiritual realms.

According to Galo mythology, the origin of their people is traced back to Jimi Ane, the great Mother. It is said that Jimi Ane created Medo, the sky, and Mich. From Mich came Chichi, the  earth. Chichi, envisioned as female, united with Medo, the male sky, and from their union sprang forth the forests, all kinds of trees, bushes, grasses, and animals. This union also gave birth to Tani, the ancestor of humans; Taki, the ancestor of spirits; and Tanyo, the ancestor of the tiger. This mythological tapestry vividly depicts the world’s creation and the intricate relationships between all living beings in Galo's cosmology.

Among the Galos, there are several malevolent and benevolent gods and goddesses. Some of the malevolent spirits are Yapom (jungle’s evil spirit), Urom (souls of the dead turn into evil spirits), Aggo-Hune (evil spirits causing misfortune), and so on. Benevolent spirits are Pinku-Pinte, Pirku-Pirte and Liku-Lite (deities of the granary). There is a tradition of sacrifices being made to these spirits with the help of the Nyibo (the priest). The Nyibo (priest) is an essential person in society who mediates between the human and spiritual realms; without it, rituals are impossible. They are the mediator between the human and spirit world.

They have also been followers of the Donyi-Polo as a supreme god since early times, with no specific way to pinpoint the exact period of the evolution of the practice. It is the combined divine figure of Donyi (sun) and Polo (moon).

‘Mopin’ is the big festival of the Galos, directly or indirectly related to cultivation. It is celebrated on a vast scale. This festival of the Galos is celebrated for five days. It is usually celebrated on the 5th of April. ‘Hoorin’ is another vital ritual of Galos. These rituals are associated with cultivation, where the Mithun is sacrificed. The ‘Mode’ ritual is generally performed in April, and the ‘Hoorin’ ritual is performed in Nasu (granary)in April. Yojir is another important ritual associated with cultivation. It is not associated with any cultivation process. Still, it is performed to ensure a good harvest and luck for the whole family. Yojir is a very costly ritual. It takes more than a year to prepare and is generally performed in September. This expensive rite shows how much these people still believe in their religion even if they cannot see it since they respect all these hidden forces that surround their lives.

Professions and Lifestyles:

In the lush, rain-drenched landscapes of the West Siang District, where the skies gift almost 4000 mm of rain annually, the Galos weave their lives intricately with the rhythm of the land.

Agriculture is not just an economic activity here; it is the heartbeat of the community, a vibrant tapestry that threads through the people's daily lives. Traditionally, virtually all Tani people have practised a shifting cultivation, supplemented by hunting, and gathering. In the Galo area, cultivation occurs on steep mountain fields, which are first cleared and burnt by men with sinewy arms and determined faces. Once the fields are prepared, it is the women's turn to take centre stage. Armed with simple planting sticks, they move with the grace and precision of dancers, planting seeds that hold the promise of future harvests. Mainstay crops include several varieties of rice, millet (in northern areas), chilli peppers, various tubers (mostly tapiocas), maise, and several usually diminutive species of Solanum (eggplants).

Beyond the cultivated fields, the Galos' connection with nature deepens. A wide variety of fruits, mushrooms, roots, leaves, ferns, and other wild vegetables are harvested, with most meals consisting of at least one or two dishes made entirely of wild-gathered foods. Bamboo shoots are usually consumed as ‘iikúu,’ a delicious earth-fermented pickle of diced bamboo generally employed as a flavouring agent rather than a primary ingredient. In the foothills, red lentils (masur dal) constitute the principal Indic contribution to the Galo kitchen, although they are less commonly eaten further north.

Reciprocal labour, Galo ‘rɨgée’, is an essential and enduring feature of Galo society, enabling Galo people to overcome logistical challenges which would be difficult or impossible for a single family to manage. For example, clearing and planting fields, which often involves levelling large swathes of dense jungle, is an unimaginable task for an individual but is relatively easily accomplished by a large group working together. Similarly, ‘rɨgée’ is required to achieve the construction and frequent reconstruction of the massive and intricate houses in which Galo traditionally lived. As the Arunachali economy grows increasingly cash-oriented, a small number of Galo villages have, through joint agreement, adopted contractually-based labour norms.

The Galo economy, vibrant with history, finds one of its key strengths in the art of trade. The Galos have woven a tapestry of commerce for countless generations, connecting their community to distant lands and diverse cultures. Imagine the bustling trade routes of old, where the Galos, with their abundant surplus, established vital relationships with the Bori. Like skilled weavers, these intermediaries intricately linked the Galos to Tibet's mystical markets and Assam's flourishing plains. The Galos generally exchanged their surplus with Bori and Bokars and exchanged these procured items with the traders of the plains. Inter-tribal trade was also carried out in the interior village.

The Galos make their hats, which are often highly decorative, adorned with the beaks and feathers of birds or with tufts of hair dyed red. They also make a variety of baskets, bags, and other containers. Cane and bamboo are strictly men’s crafts, and the most made objects are baskets for storing and carrying paddy, fuel and water, vessels for preparing local rice beer, rice plates, bows and arrows, headgear, mats, shoulder bags, etc. Ornaments and necklaces made of fine bamboo strips and grass are also popular. Burnt pokerwork, too is executed on bamboo articles. Basketmaking is a significant craft in these areas. They produce baskets, grain holders, rice beer containers, haversacks, food plates, etc., from bamboo. From cane, they produce headgear, cane belts, anklets, chairs, tables, wardrobes, toys, etc. Their domestically produced articles from bamboo and cane meet all their requirements in basketry. Cane and bamboo form the primary raw material that meets everyday life requirements from house building to making baskets, fishing traps, dress items, construction of suspension bridges, religious paraphernalia, etc. Bamboo and cane play a pivotal role in the life of the Galo people. Every day either bamboo or cane or both are used in the daily life of Galo people.

Food Habits:

The Galo people savour three hearty meals a day: breakfast, lunch, and dinner, with rice as the cornerstone of their diet, complemented by an array of green leafy vegetables gathered from the lush jungles. Their culinary artistry shines through in their preferred method of cooking—boiling—where tender bamboo shoots often take centre stage.

In their article, Urmimala Baruah and Ruma Bhattacharyya give an illustrated description of the Galo cuisine. They claim that the most common traditional method of cooking of the Galo tribe is boiling meat or fish with tender bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoots are gathered from the jungles and preserved in different ways. One way is that bamboo shoot is peeled, cut into pieces, ground, and kept in containers. When it turns sour, it is used in different cooked preparations. Secondly, the bamboo shoot is peeled and wrapped in a banana leaf, buried under the soil, and stones are kept over the banana leaf for one month. After that, it is taken out and stored in containers. This is called Heepe. Third is the dry bamboo shoot. It is prepared by peeling, grinding, and drying in the sun. This is called ‘Hupe.’ A mixture of dry chilli (Yaluk), roasted sesame (Naamdu) bamboo shoots, and local dry fish is prepared and consumed as a delectable chutney with rice.

The other methods of cooking used are steaming, roasting, smoking, and fermenting. The most common food item prepared by steaming is the intestine of chicken. This is usually prepared by wrapping the pieces of meat with condiments in a leaf, which is then buried under the ash in the fireplace. The meat buried under the ash gets cooked due to the heat of the fire. The Galo tribe preserves meat and fish for a more extended period by smoking. The meat or fish to be smoked are kept on a shelf above the fireplace for a few days. The heat from the fire smoked the meat and fish, thus enabling them to be stored for a more extended period. This, in turn, ensures a colossal stock of protein. Another traditional method of cooking food by the Galo tribe is cooking in bamboo tubes during feasts and festivals. Rice is cooked in bamboo tubes. Meat, fish, and wild edible plants are stuffed in raw bamboo tubes, which are covered and kept over fire. The tube is then turned from time to time to prevent burning.

The Galo tribe is also known to consume different types of insects. The Galos mostly consumes insects like Tair, Takom, Tari and Tachai, Gapu, Tak Tapum, Mirbo, Tanyi and Reli. These insects are primarily consumed raw, cooked, and roasted. These insects may be of high nutritional value and thereby contribute to conserving the health and wellness of the Galo tribe. Another feature in their diet warrants attention. The Galo tribe has a cherished tradition of brewing rice beer, particularly favouring the black variety. This beer, sweetened with charred rice husks, is not just a drink but a cultural emblem. Known as ‘opòo,’ it has historically been a staple from morning until night, offered generously to guests, used in weaning babies, and enjoyed at various gatherings.

Mark William Post, in his thesis, writes that though the rise of Christianity and tea drinking has led to a decline in everyday ‘opòo’ consumption, its ritual importance endures. During festivals and  ceremonies, ‘opòo’ still holds a place of honour, symbolising the Galo's enduring connection to their heritage and the natural world that sustains them. Even in areas where Christianity is less dominant, the social, cultural, and nutritional significance of ‘opòo’ remains evident, celebrating the rich tapestry of Galo life.

Houses:

The Galo tribe's houses are a work of art in terms of architecture and cultural symbolism, indicating their resourcefulness and reverence for nature. Every part of a Galo house is intricately designed to serve its intended purpose and signify the meaning woven into their everyday lives. All parts of a Galo house are named within an intricate web of taboos relating to gender relations. Distinct ladders, known as koobàa, are designated for men and women, leading to separate balconies. The men’s gallery, or ɲilòo-koodàa, measures up to ten by fifteen metres and extends to the entire length. On the other hand, the women’s gallery, referred to as ɲimə-koodàa, runs around the house like a narrow strip. While traditional female tasks like dishwashing and food preparation are still performed on the ɲimə-koodàa, women now often frequent the more comfortable ɲilòo-koodàa for activities such as weaving and entertaining guests. Traditionally, however, there were south-facing balconies, but now, it faces eastward, among other orientations. The heart of every Galo home, therefore, was ‘imìk’ or fireplaces either located at the centre of houses or near ‘ɲilòo-koodàa’. This is where firewood can be cooked during cold evenings or provide a relaxing area with friends. Hanging above it is ‘rapkò,’ which has enormous shelves for smoking foods and storing utensils. Family life revolves around one central hearth with specific seating arrangements for different members, including guests. The father in charge sits in ‘baagò’, which boasts some honour ‘Mithun’ skulls and hunting trophies. In contrast, others have elders sitting alongside them in ‘ɲoodəə́’ guest seats, whereas children sit at ‘udúu’ along with unmarried individuals. Women usually do not go past the ‘ɲoohì’ during menstruation but cook at an alternative ‘imìk’ if available. 

Modern Galo people have abandoned some of these restrictions; nevertheless, the traditional order of house construction continues. Even though they can afford modern concrete houses, people often have a wood and bamboo hut at the back to shelter an imìk and other things that remind them of home in this cold environment where the person feels at ease.